Reimbursements and Returns ManagementReturns are an inevitable part of selling online, especially on a customer-centric platform like Amazon. Moreover, this information allows you to strategize on price adjustments or marketing investments aiming at increased profitability. The platform offers detailed insights into different types of expenses such as storage fees, fulfilment charges, referral fees, and more. read about the best Sales Tax Compliance for Ecommerce For global Amazon sellers dealing with VAT, GST or sales tax becomes an intricate part because each region has its own regulations and rates. Implementing Encryption TechniquesTo shield data from interception, encryption is a critical security measure. Future e-commerce accounting solutions will likely offer real-time updates on sales, expenses, inventory levels, and other critical financial metrics.
The benefit here is twofold: it reduces manual data entry errors and provides real-time access to financial information. Utilizing automation tools like Link My Books can significantly streamline accounting tasks associated with Amazon FBA operations while enhancing accuracy in financial reporting. Proper configuration ensures that the data transferred from Amazon to Link My Books aligns perfectly with how you manage finances within your own accounting system. Educating yourself continually on these matters ensures your business remains compliant while using automation tools effectively. This feature aids sellers in maintaining an accurate account balance and provides insights into patterns that might indicate issues with specific products or shipment batches.
Understanding Fees and Costs with PrecisionAn integral part of Amazon accounting is keeping a precise track of various fees - FBA fees, selling fees, and additional charges. The system ensures that each return is logged accurately, reasons for returns are noted, and any resulting financial adjustments are recorded without requiring manual input from the seller. It involves meticulous tracking of sales, inventory management, handling various Amazon-specific fees, and tax obligations. Handling Returns and ReimbursementsReturns are an inevitable part of selling on Amazon, but they don't have to be a headache. Access Controls and Authentication MechanismsStrengthening system defenses against unauthorized access involves stringent access controls and robust authentication mechanisms.
Predictive analytics can forecast sales trends and inventory needs, while AI-driven algorithms can optimize tax strategies and detect anomalies or errors in financial data automatically. This includes referral fees which are a percentage cut taken by Amazon for each item sold through their platform, and varies by product category. In contrast, accounting goes deeper by analyzing this data to forecast finances, file taxes, and guide business decisions based on these insights. Tax Compliance and ReportingFor an Amazon seller dealing with taxes-including VAT (Value Added Tax), GST (Goods & Services Tax), or sales tax-ensures legal compliance and fiscal responsibility. This includes detailed records of item prices and total revenue generated, which are essential for assessing profitability and preparing accurate tax calculations.
In effect this meansBy automating these processes using Link My Books, you not only save time but also ensure accuracy across all financial aspects of your Amazon FBA business.
By integrating directly with your Amazon account, it ensures that all transactions are accounted for automatically-eliminating manual entry errors and saving considerable time. Challenges of Manual AccountingOne major challenge with manual accounting is the risk of human error-misrecorded transactions or overlooked expenses can lead to significant issues during tax season or when evaluating business performance. By having a clear picture of sales data, Amazon sellers can better assess their profitability and prepare more accurate tax calculations. Link My Books Sync Setup Both vulnerabilities pose significant risks, potentially leading to financial losses or compliance issues with tax authorities.
Automation ensures that all transactions are recorded in real-time and keeps the financial records up-to-date without constant manual intervention. This feature aids in maintaining accurate financial records, ensuring that refunds do not go unaccounted for in balance sheets. Advanced Reporting Features of Link My Books A Deep DiveComprehensive Sales TrackingAdvanced reporting features in Link My Books facilitate detailed tracking of every sale made on Amazon.
Tax Handling SimplifiedAn essential aspect managed through such automated systems is tax calculation and submission. This includes specifying which products are taxable and at what rate, as well as configuring product tax codes accurately. These tools automate most of the repetitive tasks associated with accounting, allowing sellers more time to focus on strategic decisions.
With all financial data meticulously organized and easily accessible through advanced tools like Link My Books, you can analyze this data to identify trends, optimize operations, plan inventory better based on past sales patterns and predict future profitability more accurately. Implementing Security Measures in Automated Online Accounting SystemsUnderstanding the Need for Security in Amazon FBA Accounting AutomationAs businesses increasingly rely on automated systems like Link My Books for managing their Amazon FBA accounting, the importance of implementing robust security measures cannot be overstated. Bookkeeping is the daily recording of transactions including sales, returns, and fees.
Tax Compliance SimplifiedOne of the most critical aspects for any business is tax compliance. The Role of Advanced Tools in Streamlining OperationsFor many Amazon sellers, managing the intricacies of financial records becomes feasible with tools like Link My Books.
Comparing Manual vs Automated Accounting Processes for Amazon SellersManual Accounting for Amazon SellersManual accounting involves the hands-on tracking and recording of every financial transaction by the seller or a hired accountant. These specialized tools are designed to streamline the process by automatically capturing and organizing sales data, fees, reimbursements, and payments from Amazon's platform. Initially, your focus might solely be on recording transactions - sales, returns, and fees. This includes setting up tax rates for different regions (such as VAT, GST), defining product categories, and mapping them to appropriate ledger accounts in your accounting software. The Role of Bookkeeping in Amazon FBABookkeeping serves as the groundwork for effective Amazon accounting. It automates the recording and categorization of sales, fees, reimbursements, and more. This software automates the calculation of these taxes based on the latest rates and rules specific to each region where items are sold. Whether you're new to selling on Amazon or looking to optimize an existing operation, this tool provides a robust solution to manage all aspects of FBA accounting effortlessly. Link My Books offers detailed insights into all types of fees charged by Amazon-including FBA fees, referral fees, and other operational costs. These records are vital for accurate financial reporting and are used as a base for more strategic decision-making processes that involve forecasting and tax filing.
The result is a significant reduction in administrative overhead and an increase in accuracy, allowing sellers to focus more on strategic decision-making rather than data entry. This feature allows users to consolidate their accounting from various channels into one unified system without having to manually harmonize data across different sources. Unauthorized access involves breaching system defenses to manipulate or steal confidential business data. Automating Sales TrackingWith settings configured and historical data imported, Link My Books will automatically track each sale reported by Amazon. Compliance and Tax ImplicationsWith respect to tax compliance, handling VAT, GST, or sales tax correctly on reimbursements and returns can be complex. By analyzing historical data trends regarding sales performance and fee impacts, you can predict future revenue streams more accurately. Setting Up Tax Settings in Amazon Seller CentralTo effectively manage VAT, GST, or sales tax through Amazon FBA, sellers need to correctly set up their tax settings in Amazon Seller Central. This precision is vital for maintaining clear visibility over cash flows-essential for making strategic growth decisions. Amazon Marketplace Accounting Tools Link My Books simplifies this by systematically tracking referral fees, closing fees, and any other applicable charges.
Compliance checks are equally important to ensure that the system adheres to regional and global standards governing data protection and privacy laws relevant to e-commerce activities. Being aware of these costs is crucial because they directly affect the bottom line. The Role of Automated Tools in Currency ManagementTo effectively manage the complexities associated with multi-currency transactions, many Amazon sellers turn to automated tools like Link My Books. By setting up tax rules within the platform, you can automate the calculation of taxes due on each sale based on geographical norms. Link My Books, for instance, provides analytic tools that help sellers understand their financial health through various metrics like profitability per SKU, expense categories breakdowns, and seasonal sales fluctuations. Link My Books excels in handling these costs by meticulously tracking storage and fulfillment fees associated with FBA. This meticulous tracking aids in maintaining compliance with tax laws and makes preparing for audits a smoother process. Regular Reporting and Financial Health MonitoringLink My Books facilitates regular financial reporting which plays a crucial role in keeping stakeholders informed about the business's health. Automation helps in accurately logging returned items along with their reasons and reimbursements issued by Amazon.
Automating these processes allows sellers to reduce the manual labor involved significantly. Utilizing strong encryption protocols like SSL/TLS for transmitting data and AES for storing data is essential. This ongoing monitoring acts as a preventive measure against potential financial issues while enabling proactive business strategies. Link My Books simplifies the process by accurately logging reimbursements for returned items into the accounting records. This specialized focus ensures that Amazon sellers maintain financial health and compliance with tax laws. This not only saves time but also reduces the potential for human error in manual entries. It also facilitates effortless generation of tax reports that are compliant with local regulations, thereby reducing the risk of penalties associated with non-compliance. Enhanced Compliance and Security FeaturesE-commerce businesses face various regulatory challenges, including tax obligations across different regions. In effect this means,the advancement of technology tailored for e-commerce platforms is set to revolutionize how sellers approach their finances.
Automating mundane tasks reduces the need for extensive manpower dedicated to manual bookkeeping or error correction related to human oversight. This software automates the entry of sales data, expenses, and other critical financial information directly from Amazon's platform into your accounting system. This accuracy is vital for making informed strategic decisions such as pricing strategies or market expansion plans. In effect this means that using Link My Books greatly simplifies what would otherwise be a highly complex process filled with potential errors leading to misreported earnings or even penalties from tax authorities due to non-compliance issues being overlooked when not automated properly. This not only minimizes human error but also saves considerable time. Benefits of Automation Over Manual MethodsThe primary benefit of using automated systems like Link My Books is efficiency. This includes detailed records of each sale, returns processed, and any adjustments. Tax Compliance Made EasyTax compliance poses a significant challenge for many Amazon sellers due to varying regional requirements such as VAT, GST, or sales tax obligations.
Streamlining Reimbursements and ReturnsAmazon's reimbursement process for returns can be complex but managing these transactions becomes effortless with Link My Books. How to Use Link My Books for Efficient Inventory ManagementIntegrating Link My Books with Amazon FBAWhen it comes to managing your Amazon FBA accounting, the integration of Link My Books can streamline the process significantly. Link My Books facilitates accurate tracking of these taxes directly from Amazon's reports into the connected accounting system ensuring compliance while saving time spent on calculations or potential errors during manual entries. Navigating Financial ComplianceWhen using automated systems like Link My Books for your FBA accounting needs, it's imperative to stay informed about financial compliance issues. In effect this means that Link My Books not only reduces the workload associated with bookkeeping but also empowers Amazon sellers with precise financial insights necessary for effective business management. Efficient Settlements RecordingThe bi-weekly payouts from Amazon need meticulous recording to ensure that each disbursement is reconciled correctly within your books. Tracking Sales and RevenueOne of the critical features offered by Link My Books is its ability to automatically track every sale made on Amazon.
In effect this means,the landscape of managing an automated system for your Amazon FBA account demands ongoing education on financial compliance issues alongside leveraging advanced tools like Link My Books. This automation helps you manage inventory more effectively, ensuring that returned items are accounted for correctly in your stock levels without manual intervention. Avoiding Common Pitfalls in Amazon FBA AccountingUnderstanding the Complexity of Amazon FBA AccountingAmazon FBA accounting is distinct from general e-commerce accounting due to its specific requirements and challenges. However, this convenience comes at a cost. Automation tools can help manage these complexities by identifying when you cross thresholds in foreign markets and adjusting your accounts accordingly. Real-Time Financial ManagementAs businesses scale on platforms like Amazon, the demand for real-time financial tracking and management becomes crucial. Tracking Sales and Managing ExpensesSales tracking in Amazon FBA involves monitoring each transaction meticulously - noting down each sale's details such as item sold, selling price, and total revenue generated.
With Link My Books, each disbursement is recorded precisely with a breakdown of deductions like taxes or additional fees applied by Amazon during the payment cycle. Future advancements in e-commerce accounting software are expected to better handle these complexities through automated tax calculations and multi-regional compliance support. Managing these multi-currency transactions involves converting revenues from foreign sales into your home currency, a process that can introduce financial risk due to varying exchange rates. It also demands a high level of accuracy to avoid costly mistakes in tax reports and financial statements. Handling Reimbursements EfficientlyDealing with returns is another crucial aspect where Amazon provides reimbursements that must be correctly logged into your accounting system. Sellers can track these taxes accurately to ensure compliance with regional laws-critical for avoiding legal complications and penalties. Managing Taxes and ComplianceOne of the significant challenges faced by Amazon sellers is handling VAT, GST, or other applicable sales taxes along with compliance requirements.
Link My Books seamlessly integrates with your Amazon seller account, pulling real-time data on sales, returns, and fees directly into your accounting software. Instead of manually tracking each transaction, these tools can automate the process, capturing and categorizing every sale, return, and fee directly from your Amazon account. This entails rigorous tracking of sales, inventory management, handling specific fees associated with Amazon operations, and ensuring tax compliance. The setup might require some initial effort in terms of configuring settings correctly; however, once completed, it provides ongoing benefits through streamlined operations allowing more focus on growing rather than merely managing the business. This platform is designed to automate and simplify the financial management of your sales on Amazon.
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Accounting, also known as accountancy, is the process of recording and processing information about economic entities, such as businesses and corporations.[1][2] Accounting measures the results of an organization's economic activities and conveys this information to a variety of stakeholders, including investors, creditors, management, and regulators.[3] Practitioners of accounting are known as accountants. The terms "accounting" and "financial reporting" are often used interchangeably.[4]
Accounting can be divided into several fields including financial accounting, management accounting, tax accounting and cost accounting.[5] Financial accounting focuses on the reporting of an organization's financial information, including the preparation of financial statements, to the external users of the information, such as investors, regulators and suppliers.[6] Management accounting focuses on the measurement, analysis and reporting of information for internal use by management to enhance business operations.[1][6] The recording of financial transactions, so that summaries of the financials may be presented in financial reports, is known as bookkeeping, of which double-entry bookkeeping is the most common system.[7] Accounting information systems are designed to support accounting functions and related activities.
Accounting has existed in various forms and levels of sophistication throughout human history. The double-entry accounting system in use today was developed in medieval Europe, particularly in Venice, and is usually attributed to the Italian mathematician and Franciscan friar Luca Pacioli.[8] Today, accounting is facilitated by accounting organizations such as standard-setters, accounting firms and professional bodies. Financial statements are usually audited by accounting firms,[9] and are prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).[6] GAAP is set by various standard-setting organizations such as the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) in the United States[1] and the Financial Reporting Council in the United Kingdom. As of 2012, "all major economies" have plans to converge towards or adopt the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).[10][11]
Accounting is thousands of years old and can be traced to ancient civilizations.[12][13][14] One early development of accounting dates back to ancient Mesopotamia and is closely related to developments in writing, counting and money;[12] there is also evidence of early forms of bookkeeping in ancient Iran,[15][16] and early auditing systems by the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians.[13] By the time of Emperor Augustus, the Roman government had access to detailed financial information.[17]
Many concepts related to today's accounting seem to be initiated in medieval's Middle East. For example, Jewish communities used double-entry bookkeeping in the early-medieval period[18][19] and Muslim societies, at least since the 10th century also used many modern accounting concepts.[20]
The spread of the use of Arabic numerals, instead of the Roman numbers historically used in Europe, increased efficiency of accounting procedures among Mediterranean merchants,[21] who further refined accounting in medieval Europe.[22] With the development of joint-stock companies, accounting split into financial accounting and management accounting.
The first published work on a double-entry bookkeeping system was the Summa de arithmetica, published in Italy in 1494 by Luca Pacioli (the "Father of Accounting").[23][24] Accounting began to transition into an organized profession in the nineteenth century,[25][26] with local professional bodies in England merging to form the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales in 1880.[27]
Both the words "accounting" and "accountancy" were in use in Great Britain by the mid-1800s and are derived from the words accompting and accountantship used in the 18th century.[28] In Middle English (used roughly between the 12th and the late 15th century), the verb "to account" had the form accounten, which was derived from the Old French word aconter,[29] which is in turn related to the Vulgar Latin word computare, meaning "to reckon". The base of computare is putare, which "variously meant to prune, to purify, to correct an account, hence, to count or calculate, as well as to think".[29]
The word "accountant" is derived from the French word compter, which is also derived from the Italian and Latin word computare. The word was formerly written in English as "accomptant", but in process of time the word, which was always pronounced by dropping the "p", became gradually changed both in pronunciation and in orthography to its present form.[30]
Accounting has variously been defined as the keeping or preparation of the financial records of transactions of the firm, the analysis, verification and reporting of such records and "the principles and procedures of accounting"; it also refers to the job of being an accountant.[31][32][33]
Accountancy refers to the occupation or profession of an accountant,[34][35][36] particularly in British English.[31][32]
Accounting has several subfields or subject areas, including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing, taxation and accounting information systems.[5]
Financial accounting focuses on the reporting of an organization's financial information to external users of the information, such as investors, potential investors and creditors. It calculates and records business transactions and prepares financial statements for the external users in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).[6] GAAP, in turn, arises from the wide agreement between accounting theory and practice, and changes over time to meet the needs of decision-makers.[1]
Financial accounting produces past-oriented reports—for example financial statements are often published six to ten months after the end of the accounting period—on an annual or quarterly basis, generally about the organization as a whole.[6]
Management accounting focuses on the measurement, analysis and reporting of information that can help managers in making decisions to fulfill the goals of an organization. In management accounting, internal measures and reports are based on cost–benefit analysis, and are not required to follow the generally accepted accounting principle (GAAP).[6] In 2014 CIMA created the Global Management Accounting Principles (GMAPs). The result of research from across 20 countries in five continents, the principles aim to guide best practice in the discipline.[37]
Management accounting produces past-oriented reports with time spans that vary widely, but it also encompasses future-oriented reports such as budgets. Management accounting reports often include financial and non financial information, and may, for example, focus on specific products and departments.[6]
Intercompany accounting focuses on the measurement, analysis and reporting of information between separate entities that are related, such as a parent company and its subsidiary companies. Intercompany accounting concerns record keeping of transactions between companies that have common ownership such as a parent company and a partially or wholly owned subsidiary. Intercompany transactions are also recorded in accounting when business is transacted between companies with a common parent company (subsidiaries).[38][39]
Auditing is the verification of assertions made by others regarding a payoff,[40] and in the context of accounting it is the "unbiased examination and evaluation of the financial statements of an organization".[41] Audit is a professional service that is systematic and conventional.[42]
An audit of financial statements aims to express or disclaim an independent opinion on the financial statements. The auditor expresses an independent opinion on the fairness with which the financial statements presents the financial position, results of operations, and cash flows of an entity, in accordance with the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) and "in all material respects". An auditor is also required to identify circumstances in which the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) have not been consistently observed.[43]
An accounting information system is a part of an organization's information system used for processing accounting data.[44] Many corporations use artificial intelligence-based information systems. The banking and finance industry uses AI in fraud detection. The retail industry uses AI for customer services. AI is also used in the cybersecurity industry. It involves computer hardware and software systems using statistics and modeling.[45]
Many accounting practices have been simplified with the help of accounting computer-based software. An enterprise resource planning (ERP) system is commonly used for a large organisation and it provides a comprehensive, centralized, integrated source of information that companies can use to manage all major business processes, from purchasing to manufacturing to human resources. These systems can be cloud based and available on demand via application or browser, or available as software installed on specific computers or local servers, often referred to as on-premise.
Tax accounting in the United States concentrates on the preparation, analysis and presentation of tax payments and tax returns. The U.S. tax system requires the use of specialised accounting principles for tax purposes which can differ from the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) for financial reporting.[46] U.S. tax law covers four basic forms of business ownership: sole proprietorship, partnership, corporation, and limited liability company. Corporate and personal income are taxed at different rates, both varying according to income levels and including varying marginal rates (taxed on each additional dollar of income) and average rates (set as a percentage of overall income).[46]
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Forensic accounting is a specialty practice area of accounting that describes engagements that result from actual or anticipated disputes or litigation.[47] "Forensic" means "suitable for use in a court of law", and it is to that standard and potential outcome that forensic accountants generally have to work.
Political campaign accounting deals with the development and implementation of financial systems and the accounting of financial transactions in compliance with laws governing political campaign operations. This branch of accounting was first formally introduced in the March 1976 issue of The Journal of Accountancy.[48]
Professional accounting bodies include the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) and the other 179 members of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC),[49] including Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS), Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan (ICAP), CPA Australia, Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) and Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW). Some countries have a single professional accounting body and, in some other countries, professional bodies for subfields of the accounting professions also exist, for example the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA) in the UK and Institute of management accountants in the United States.[50] Many of these professional bodies offer education and training including qualification and administration for various accounting designations, such as certified public accountant (AICPA) and chartered accountant.[51][52]
Depending on its size, a company may be legally required to have their financial statements audited by a qualified auditor, and audits are usually carried out by accounting firms.[9]
Accounting firms grew in the United States and Europe in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, and through several mergers there were large international accounting firms by the mid-twentieth century. Further large mergers in the late twentieth century led to the dominance of the auditing market by the "Big Five" accounting firms: Arthur Andersen, Deloitte, Ernst & Young, KPMG and PricewaterhouseCoopers.[53] The demise of Arthur Andersen following the Enron scandal reduced the Big Five to the Big Four.[54]
Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) are accounting standards issued by national regulatory bodies. In addition, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) issues the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) implemented by 147 countries.[1] Standards for international audit and assurance, ethics, education, and public sector accounting are all set by independent standard settings boards supported by IFAC. The International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board sets international standards for auditing, assurance, and quality control; the International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants (IESBA) [55] sets the internationally appropriate principles-based Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants; the International Accounting Education Standards Board (IAESB) sets professional accounting education standards;[56] and International Public Sector Accounting Standards Board (IPSASB) sets accrual-based international public sector accounting standards.[57][4]
Organizations in individual countries may issue accounting standards unique to the countries. For example, in Australia, the Australian Accounting Standards Board manages the issuance of the accounting standards in line with IFRS. In the United States the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) issues the Statements of Financial Accounting Standards, which form the basis of US GAAP,[1] and in the United Kingdom the Financial Reporting Council (FRC) sets accounting standards.[58] However, as of 2012 "all major economies" have plans to converge towards or adopt the IFRS.[10]
At least a bachelor's degree in accounting or a related field is required for most accountant and auditor job positions, and some employers prefer applicants with a master's degree.[59] A degree in accounting may also be required for, or may be used to fulfill the requirements for, membership to professional accounting bodies. For example, the education during an accounting degree can be used to fulfill the American Institute of CPA's (AICPA) 150 semester hour requirement,[60] and associate membership with the Certified Public Accountants Association of the UK is available after gaining a degree in finance or accounting.[61]
A doctorate is required in order to pursue a career in accounting academia, for example, to work as a university professor in accounting.[62][63] The Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) and the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) are the most popular degrees. The PhD is the most common degree for those wishing to pursue a career in academia, while DBA programs generally focus on equipping business executives for business or public careers requiring research skills and qualifications.[62]
Professional accounting qualifications include the chartered accountant designations and other qualifications including certificates and diplomas.[64] In Scotland, chartered accountants of ICAS undergo Continuous Professional Development and abide by the ICAS code of ethics.[65] In England and Wales, chartered accountants of the ICAEW undergo annual training, and are bound by the ICAEW's code of ethics and subject to its disciplinary procedures.[66]
In the United States, the requirements for joining the AICPA as a Certified Public Accountant are set by the Board of Accountancy of each state, and members agree to abide by the AICPA's Code of Professional Conduct and Bylaws.
The ACCA is the largest global accountancy body with over 320,000 members, and the organisation provides an 'IFRS stream' and a 'UK stream'. Students must pass a total of 14 exams, which are arranged across three levels.[67]
Accounting research is research in the effects of economic events on the process of accounting, the effects of reported information on economic events, and the roles of accounting in organizations and society.[68][69] It encompasses a broad range of research areas including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing and taxation.[70]
Accounting research is carried out both by academic researchers and practicing accountants. Methodologies in academic accounting research include archival research, which examines "objective data collected from repositories"; experimental research, which examines data "the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects"; analytical research, which is "based on the act of formally modeling theories or substantiating ideas in mathematical terms"; interpretive research, which emphasizes the role of language, interpretation and understanding in accounting practice, "highlighting the symbolic structures and taken-for-granted themes which pattern the world in distinct ways"; critical research, which emphasizes the role of power and conflict in accounting practice; case studies; computer simulation; and field research.[71][72]
Empirical studies document that leading accounting journals publish in total fewer research articles than comparable journals in economics and other business disciplines,[73] and consequently, accounting scholars[74] are relatively less successful in academic publishing than their business school peers.[75] Due to different publication rates between accounting and other business disciplines, a recent study based on academic author rankings concludes that the competitive value of a single publication in a top-ranked journal is highest in accounting and lowest in marketing.[76]
The year 2001 witnessed a series of financial information frauds involving Enron, auditing firm Arthur Andersen, the telecommunications company WorldCom, Qwest and Sunbeam, among other well-known corporations. These problems highlighted the need to review the effectiveness of accounting standards, auditing regulations and corporate governance principles. In some cases, management manipulated the figures shown in financial reports to indicate a better economic performance. In others, tax and regulatory incentives encouraged over-leveraging of companies and decisions to bear extraordinary and unjustified risk.[77]
The Enron scandal deeply influenced the development of new regulations to improve the reliability of financial reporting, and increased public awareness about the importance of having accounting standards that show the financial reality of companies and the objectivity and independence of auditing firms.[77]
In addition to being the largest bankruptcy reorganization in American history, the Enron scandal undoubtedly is the biggest audit failure[78] causing the dissolution of Arthur Andersen, which at the time was one of the five largest accounting firms in the world. After a series of revelations involving irregular accounting procedures conducted throughout the 1990s, Enron filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in December 2001.[79]
One consequence of these events was the passage of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act in the United States in 2002, as a result of the first admissions of fraudulent behavior made by Enron. The act significantly raises criminal penalties for securities fraud, for destroying, altering or fabricating records in federal investigations or any scheme or attempt to defraud shareholders.[80]
Accounting fraud is an intentional misstatement or omission in the accounting records by management or employees which involves the use of deception. It is a criminal act and a breach of civil tort. It may involve collusion with third parties.[81]
An accounting error is an unintentional misstatement or omission in the accounting records, for example misinterpretation of facts, mistakes in processing data, or oversights leading to incorrect estimates.[81] Acts leading to accounting errors are not criminal but may breach civil law, for example, the tort of negligence.
The primary responsibility for the prevention and detection of fraud and errors rests with the entity's management.[81]
Vat or VAT may refer to:
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Bookkeeping is the recording of financial transactions, and is part of the process of accounting in business and other organizations.[1] It involves preparing source documents for all transactions, operations, and other events of a business. Transactions include purchases, sales, receipts and payments by an individual person, organization or corporation. There are several standard methods of bookkeeping, including the single-entry and double-entry bookkeeping systems. While these may be viewed as "real" bookkeeping, any process for recording financial transactions is a bookkeeping process.
The person in an organisation who is employed to perform bookkeeping functions is usually called the bookkeeper (or book-keeper). They usually write the daybooks (which contain records of sales, purchases, receipts, and payments), and document each financial transaction, whether cash or credit, into the correct daybook—that is, petty cash book, suppliers ledger, customer ledger, etc.—and the general ledger. Thereafter, an accountant can create financial reports from the information recorded by the bookkeeper. The bookkeeper brings the books to the trial balance stage, from which an accountant may prepare financial reports for the organisation, such as the income statement and balance sheet.
The origin of book-keeping is lost in obscurity, but recent research indicates that methods of keeping accounts have existed from the remotest times of human life in cities. Babylonian records written with styli on small slabs of clay have been found dating to 2600 BC.[2] Mesopotamian bookkeepers kept records on clay tablets that may date back as far as 7,000 years. Use of the modern double entry bookkeeping system was described by Luca Pacioli in 1494.[3]
The term "waste book" was used in colonial America, referring to the documenting of daily transactions of receipts and expenditures. Records were made in chronological order, and for temporary use only. Daily records were then transferred to a daybook or account ledger to balance the accounts and to create a permanent journal; then the waste book could be discarded, hence the name.[4]
The primary purpose of bookkeeping is to record the financial effects of transactions. An important difference between a manual and an electronic accounting system is the former's latency between the recording of a financial transaction and its posting in the relevant account. This delay, which is absent in electronic accounting systems due to nearly instantaneous posting to relevant accounts, is characteristic of manual systems, and gave rise to the primary books of accounts—cash book, purchase book, sales book, etc.—for immediately documenting a financial transaction.
In the normal course of business, a document is produced each time a transaction occurs. Sales and purchases usually have invoices or receipts. Historically, deposit slips were produced when lodgements (deposits) were made to a bank account; and checks (spelled "cheques" in the UK and several other countries) were written to pay money out of the account. Nowadays such transactions are mostly made electronically. Bookkeeping first involves recording the details of all of these source documents into multi-column journals (also known as books of first entry or daybooks). For example, all credit sales are recorded in the sales journal; all cash payments are recorded in the cash payments journal. Each column in a journal normally corresponds to an account. In the single entry system, each transaction is recorded only once. Most individuals who balance their check-book each month are using such a system, and most personal-finance software follows this approach.
After a certain period, typically a month, each column in each journal is totalled to give a summary for that period. Using the rules of double-entry, these journal summaries are then transferred to their respective accounts in the ledger, or account book. For example, the entries in the Sales Journal are taken and a debit entry is made in each customer's account (showing that the customer now owes us money), and a credit entry might be made in the account for "Sale of class 2 widgets" (showing that this activity has generated revenue for us). This process of transferring summaries or individual transactions to the ledger is called posting. Once the posting process is complete, accounts kept using the "T" format (debits on the left side of the "T" and credits on the right side) undergo balancing, which is simply a process to arrive at the balance of the account.
As a partial check that the posting process was done correctly, a working document called an unadjusted trial balance is created. In its simplest form, this is a three-column list. Column One contains the names of those accounts in the ledger which have a non-zero balance. If an account has a debit balance, the balance amount is copied into Column Two (the debit column); if an account has a credit balance, the amount is copied into Column Three (the credit column). The debit column is then totalled, and then the credit column is totalled. The two totals must agree—which is not by chance—because under the double-entry rules, whenever there is a posting, the debits of the posting equal the credits of the posting. If the two totals do not agree, an error has been made, either in the journals or during the posting process. The error must be located and rectified, and the totals of the debit column and the credit column recalculated to check for agreement before any further processing can take place.
Once the accounts balance, the accountant makes a number of adjustments and changes the balance amounts of some of the accounts. These adjustments must still obey the double-entry rule: for example, the inventory account and asset account might be changed to bring them into line with the actual numbers counted during a stocktake. At the same time, the expense account associated with use of inventory is adjusted by an equal and opposite amount. Other adjustments such as posting depreciation and prepayments are also done at this time. This results in a listing called the adjusted trial balance. It is the accounts in this list, and their corresponding debit or credit balances, that are used to prepare the financial statements.
Finally financial statements are drawn from the trial balance, which may include:
The primary bookkeeping record in single-entry bookkeeping is the cash book, which is similar to a checking account register (in UK: cheque account, current account), except all entries are allocated among several categories of income and expense accounts. Separate account records are maintained for petty cash, accounts payable and accounts receivable, and other relevant transactions such as inventory and travel expenses. To save time and avoid the errors of manual calculations, single-entry bookkeeping can be done today with do-it-yourself bookkeeping software.
A double-entry bookkeeping system is a set of rules for recording financial information in a financial accounting system in which every transaction or event changes at least two different ledger accounts.
A daybook is a descriptive and chronological (diary-like) record of day-to-day financial transactions; it is also called a book of original entry. The daybook's details must be transcribed formally into journals to enable posting to ledgers. Daybooks include:
A petty cash book is a record of small-value purchases before they are later transferred to the ledger and final accounts; it is maintained by a petty or junior cashier. This type of cash book usually uses the imprest system: a certain amount of money is provided to the petty cashier by the senior cashier. This money is to cater for minor expenditures (hospitality, minor stationery, casual postage, and so on) and is reimbursed periodically on satisfactory explanation of how it was spent. The balance of petty cash book is Asset.
Journals are recorded in the general journal daybook. A journal is a formal and chronological record of financial transactions before their values are accounted for in the general ledger as debits and credits. A company can maintain one journal for all transactions, or keep several journals based on similar activity (e.g., sales, cash receipts, revenue, etc.), making transactions easier to summarize and reference later. For every debit journal entry recorded, there must be an equivalent credit journal entry to maintain a balanced accounting equation.[5][6]
A ledger is a record of accounts. The ledger is a permanent summary of all amounts entered in supporting Journals which list individual transactions by date. These accounts are recorded separately, showing their beginning/ending balance. A journal lists financial transactions in chronological order, without showing their balance but showing how much is going to be entered in each account. A ledger takes each financial transaction from the journal and records it into the corresponding account for every transaction listed. The ledger also determines the balance of every account, which is transferred into the balance sheet or the income statement. There are three different kinds of ledgers that deal with book-keeping:
A chart of accounts is a list of the accounts codes that can be identified with numeric, alphabetical, or alphanumeric codes allowing the account to be located in the general ledger. The equity section of the chart of accounts is based on the fact that the legal structure of the entity is of a particular legal type. Possibilities include sole trader, partnership, trust, and company.[7]
Computerized bookkeeping removes many of the paper "books" that are used to record the financial transactions of a business entity; instead, relational databases are used today, but typically, these still enforce the norms of bookkeeping including the single-entry and double-entry bookkeeping systems. Certified Public Accountants (CPAs) supervise the internal controls for computerized bookkeeping systems, which serve to minimize errors in documenting the numerous activities a business entity may initiate or complete over an accounting period.